NICARAGUA

Nicaragua and its people had and still surviving earth quakes and volcanoes in their history. The country itself with its tropical forests, teeming lakes and lush lowland is absolutely beautiful.

Before Columbus or the Spaniards conquered Nicaragua the indigenous people were part of the Intermediate Area. This is between Mesoamerican and Andean cultural regions. There also came an influence from the Isthmo-Colombian area. It was an area where Mesoamerican and South-American native culture met. 

6000 YEARS' OLD

FOOD PRINT

The confirmation of the knowledge comes from the ancient footprint (see photo) and as well as other archaeological evidence of ceramic and statues made from volcanic stone. They were also from an island of Zapatenra and petroglyples which were found on the Ometepe island.

In the west of Nicaragua several indigenous people belonging to the Mesoamerican were still living by the end of the 15th century. These people were farmers and lived in small kingdoms.

The Chibcha lived in the coastal area and arrive from an area which is now known as Colombia. They were hunters/gatherers. The native people living on the eastern side of Nicaragua have traded and adopted the Caribbean lifestyle such as round thatched huts and canoes. The Chorojega lived in the centre. The two groups were first overran by the Spaniards and mixed with them. The result was mestizos; a race with mixed blood.

However, the Indian population reduced drastically in the next three decades. It was due to the diseases from the Spaniards and ill treatment.

Since the independence from the Spain in 1821, Nicaragua suffered many corrupt rulers which were often back by the US Government.

The Soviet Union supported the Sandinista revolutionaries and with that they won a vicious war in 1979. The new government was a socialist and was backed by the Soviet Union. They distributed the land to the peasants.

The Contras, which were backed by the US, fought against them in 1980. As a matter of fact this was the last battle of the Cold War. In 1989 a ceasefire was declared and in the next election in 1990 the Sandinista lost. The Contras handed in their arms.

Violence still flaring up and Nicaragua still faces all the problems. The unemployment is very high and in the agriculture the output is very low; The country depends on Foreign Aids.

Nicaragua is between Costa Rica in the south and Honduras in the north. The country has a volcanic mountain range and two huge lakes, Managua and Nicaragua , the low-lying tropical forests on the Caribbean coast and the Savannah land on the Pacific side.

The weather is wet and sultry. Most of the country is covered by tropical forest with hardwood trees like mahogany, rosewood and cedar.

The people are mestizos which means they are of mixed blood, Indians and Spanish. A small English-speaking community lives on the remote east-coast and forest dwelling Miskito Indians.

Nicaragua has plenty of fertile land. Farmers grow coffee, sugar cane, cotton. and cattle. These are very important for export which is the country main economy. Due all these wars the land and the economy has suffered badly.

MEXICO

Mexico lies in Central America. The country’s history stretches back to 10,000 years. It is famous for Maya from 300 to 900; Toltecs 900 to 1200; Aztec from 1200 to 1519.

The arrival of the Spanish conquistadores, Hernan Cortes, brought the Aztec ruler Montezuma II in 1519 to an end. In 1535 the territory was made the viceroyalty of New Spain under Antonio de Mendoza.

Spain introduced Mercantilism, from 16^th the 18^th century, which means that the quantity of trade is fixed. It brought the ‘colony’ down. Discontent was growing and in 1808 when Napoleon I conquered Spain a revolution started in 1810 TO 1815 in New Spain. Although the revolution was crushed but Mexico became independent in 1821.

GUADALUPE

VICTORIA

In 1823 Mexico was declared a republic and in 1824 Guadalupe Victoria was its first president.

In 1845 America’s annexation of Texas started the Mexican-American War.

In 1848 a treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed and gave US Texas for a payment of US$15million. Mexico lost two-fifths of its territory which included New Mexico, Arizona and California.

SANTA ANNA

After the war President Santa Anna turned Mexico into a dictatorship till 1855. It was overthrown in a liberal revolution but Conservatives opposite the new constitution and led to civil war in 1857. The War of Reform from 1858 to 1861.

Three years later Napoleon III put Ferdinand Joseph Maximillian as Mexican emperor. He was a Habsburg prince from the Austrian dynasty. The empire collapsed when France withdrew its support in 1867. Liberals cam to power under President Benito Juarez.

PORFIRIO DIAZ

In 1876 Porfirio Diaz commanded armed rebels and overthrew Lerdo de Tajada, the successor of Juarez. Diaz state in power till 1911. His regime preferred Mexico’s elite but failed to bring the middle class or labour groups into his politics.

In 1910 a 30 years Mexican revolution started under Anti-Re-election leader Francisco Madero. Diaz resigned in 1911 and Madero became President. Madero was assassinated in 1913.

Within two years a coalition faction led by Emiliano Zapata, Francisco Villa, Venustiano Caranza and Alvaro Obregon to overthrow the government. Political differences split them.  On party wanted to reform the 1857 constitution; the other to implement radical proposal drawn up in 1914 convention of Aguascalientes.

Another civil war followed, and Carranza gained power and February 1917 he proclaimed a reformed constitution. It was ignored and in 1920 Carranza was assassinated. 

MANUAL AVILA CAMACHO

In 1928 the Cristeros Christian peasants rose against the ‘Godless’ state. They were defeated in 1930.  Skirmishes and confrontation lasted another 10 years. Newly elected President Manual Avila Camacho brought some period of peace.

During the Second World War Mexico fought on the side of the Allies from 1942. After the war industrialisation brought Mexico a golden era till 1980 when oil reserves fell in value. Unemployment and inflation followed.

In 1993 Mexico joined Canada and the USA in the North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

ERNESTO ZEDILLO

In 1994 the Zapatista National Liberation Army rose in the state of Chiapas and received a peace agreement with the government of President Ernesto Zedillo in September 1995.    

NORWAY

The country is on the western part of Scandinavia.

In pre-historic times it was inhabited by primitive hunting gatherers.

9th century AD rivalry between chiefs for more land made the Vikings to sail to Greenland, Iceland and England.

10th century AD brought a political organisation under Harold Fairhair and Olaf I followed by Olaf II

In 1028 the Danish king Canute started to rule Norway and Olaf II fled to Russia. Assisted by Norwegian nobles Canute had control till his death. After that the Throne was returned to Norway again.

HAROLD HARDRADA

Harold Hardrada attempted to claim the English throne in 1066 but failed and a civil war followed.

Eventual the Norwegian throne was claimed by Sverrir. who claim to be the illegitimate son of the Norwegian king Sigurd.

During the ruler Haakon IV between 1204 and 1263 Greenland and Iceland was added to Norway and from 1254 trade flourished with the Hanseatic League creating prosperity.

MARGARET  I

HAAKUN  VI

In 1397 Norway, Sweden and Denmark  were united by the Danish monarch Margaret I, wife of Haakon VI.

It was dissolved in 1523 but Norway continued to be ruled by Danish governors until 1807 when it established its own Parliament, it was ceded to Sweden in 1814.

HAAKUN  VII

A rivalry of nationalism started a demand for complete Independence and it was granted in 1884. The union with Sweden was finally dissolved in 1905 and Prince Charles of Denmark was elected as Haakon VII.

Norway kept neutral in both World Wars  but in 1940 Germany invaded Norway. Germany established a puppet government under the Norwegian fascist Vidkun Quisling.  He gave himself up in 1945.

The monarchy and a Labour Government returned.

The exploitation of North Sea Oil  during 1970 boosted the country's economic. It was expanded during the  1990s.

During 1981 and 1993 Gro Harlem  Brundrland

KING OLAF  V

was Norway's first woman Prime Minister and won the vote again in 1993.




In 1991 King Olaf V was succeeded by his son Harold V.

KING HAROLD  V

Although a foundling of European Free Trading Association (EFTA) by 1990 the majority Norway's export was coming from the European Community and only 15 pc from EFTA.

In 1992 Norway led negotiation for an establishment of the European Economic Area - the EC including Norway, Iceland and Lichtenstein. It came into force in 1993.

Norwegians voted against joining the European Union.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. .

Territorial expansion followed with the Louisiana purchase in 1803; Texas; California and the south-west following the Mexican -American war from 1846 to 1848.

Success in the war and the California Gold Rush in 1848 helped to open up the Wild West and the Pacific coast. The spread of the railway network and the huge immigration from Europe began to fill the Great Plain.

From 1812 till 1861 the Mississippi Valley and the great Lakes region were populated with settlers. The mid 19th century there were constant political crisis over slavery (abolished 1865) and States Rights. It led to the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865.

The last decades of the 19th century saw the purchase of Alaska and regaining the Spanish colonies after the Spanish American War in 1898.

In the 20th century the USA has become a world power. It got involved in the First World War and Second World War. At the end of the Second World War it dropped atom bombs at Japan's Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Since it had played an active role in "world policing" with the UN headquarters based in New York, USA.

In the determination (or cover) to prevent the spread of communism it fought in the Korean War - 1950-53 and Vietnam War 1964-75 and supported anti-communism regimes especially in Latin America.

But the USA also supported the Khmer Rouge, Papa Dog and Baby Dog, to name just a few, which is still incredible. Those regimes  were one of the worst blood bath.

During the 1970 and 1980 with the Cold War, between the West and East block, easing off  the USA started an arms reduction with the Soviet Union.

The USA was also involved in the Gulf War during 1991.

Back home the USA faced many crisis. The severe depression and followed by the Stock Market Crash in 1929; a campaign of civil troubles which led to the Civil Right Act in 1964. The assassination of John F Kennedy in 1963; the programme of the first Moon landing in 1969;  the Watergate scandal of Richard Nixon and his resignation in 1974.

During the last decades the USA invaded countries and was involved in a number of illegal wars including the UK.  Such as Laos, Cambodia, Lebanon, Libya, Afghanistan, Iraq and lately Syria all under the cover of being ruled by dictators and trying introducing democracy. However, all these countries are divided and in a complete mess.

BELGIUM

The country is in the north-west of Europe. It became popular in the Middle Ages for the wealth of its free merchant cities.

In the 15^th century the area belonged to the Duchy of Burgundy.

In 1477 it was taken into the Habsburg Empire by Maximilian I.

Habsburg established its Empire by marrying and therefore the phrase was coined “Other countries win countries by war but you, Austria, win countries by marrying.”

Between 1504 and 1715 the territory was rules by Spain

From 1713 till 1795 it was ruled by Austria and by France
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In 1815 it became a province of the kingdom of the Netherlands and in 1830 it received independence after a national revolution.  Prince Leopold of Saxon-Coburg was elected one year later as King of Belgium

An international treaty was drawn up in 1839 and it guaranteed Belgium to stay neutral. This treaty was ignored in 1914 and 1940 by Germany when Belgium was invaded.

In 1971 a constitutional reform was established which split the federation of Belgium into semi-autonomous regions of Flemish-speaking Flanders, French-speaking Wallonia and bi-lingual Brussels.  Brussels includes the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the European Community (EU).

King Baudouin died in 1983 and was succeeded by his brother, Albert

BELGAE

Large group of Celtic tribes were living in the northern Rhineland, the Low Countries, northern France (Gaul) and southern England during the 2^nd and 1^st centuries BC.

The Belgae were well established people and put a fierce fight against the Romans. 

Eventually the Romans started to respect. 

Julius Caesar conquered Gaul in 50BC. It followed that Belgae noblemen were admitted to the Roman senate.

Today’s name Belgium derived from the name of Belgae.

ERTUGRUL OSMAN -- LAST OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

PRINCE  
ERTUGRUL OSMAN

Ertugrul Osman was a descendant of Osman I. Osman I established a kingdom in 1299 which eventually grew into the huge Ottoman Empire. It controlled parts of Europe, Africa and the Middle East.

DOLMABAHCE PALACE

The Ottoman Empire lasted from 1300 till 1922. When on 29 October 1923 Turkey was declared a Republic. The Ottoman Empire span right across three continents from 16th - 17thcentury controlling most South-eastern Europe, West Asia and North Africa.

The Ottoman Empire were made up of 29 provinces and many vassal states, some were then included into the empire. Some distance overseas lands declared allegiance to the Ottoman Sultan and Caliph; a declaration by the Sultan of Aceh in 1565; a temporary acquisition of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, one of them was Lanzarode 1585.

The Empire was at the centre between Eastern and Western world for six centuries with Constantinople (Istanbul) as the capital. The Ottoman Empire an Islam is a successor to the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire. It was the longest Muslin Empire 1300-1922.

Osman would have been the next Sultan but Turkey proclaimed a republic in 1923. Therefore, the royal family was expelled and Ertugrul Osman who was at the school in Vienna did not return to Turkey till he was invited by the government in 1992.

He visited the Dolmabahce palace by the Bosphorus River where he lived and played as a child. To avoid drawing attention to himself he joined a group of tourist.

For more than 60 years he lived in a rent-controlled apartment in New York. Osman was asked many times about what might have been and what was and whether he thinks that the empire will be restored. He always said - no.

Ertugrul Osman died when he visited Istanbul on 23 September 2009 aged 97. His wife was with him when he died.

EARLIEST HISTORY IN SOUTH AMERICA

OLMEG'S GOD

The first people entered the American continent from Asia between 20,000 and 40,000 years ago. Scientists and archaeologists tried very hard to pinpoint a more specific date to their arrival but failed so far. However, it is established that human being has spread out all over the globe by 40,000 BC. It is assumed that they crossed the land-bridge which linked Siberia and Alaska in those days. Unfortunately, so far no evidence had been found.a

The first people of America were, presumable, hunters, followed the game and they spread all over the continent. Eventual they reach the most southern part, Terra del Fuego, in around 9, 000 BC

Thousand years later the ice-caps melted and the land-bridge disappeared. The Bering Strait was formed. The ancient Eskimos went later, by boat, to Alaska. After that, people in America developed, isolated from the rest of the world. Although they didn't achieve great advantages in technology, such as inventing the wheel, they nevertheless created a civilization with great cities, societies and complex achievements in art and science. They didn't develop an alphabetical writing but picture writing. Yet they were extremely advanced in mathematics and astronomy. For these reasons, the civilisations of the Olmecs, which were the first known, Maya, Aztecs and Incas were completely different from those in Europe and many aspects still seem mysterious today.

North of Mexico City, are the ruins of Teotihuancan which is the first real city of America. There are pyramids, palaces, houses and workshops. This city was built a few centuries after the end of the Olmec empire. The largest monument, the Pyramid of the Sun, is over 60m high. The people who built it are not known. After many centuries the Aztecs used it as their place of pilgrimage.

                                  

THE OLMEC CIVILIZATION

The first know civilization in Central America were the Olmec. It was in eastern Mexico and its centre was a large area of tropical forest and swamps. It seems an unusual place to build a city-like ceremonial centres. There were huge earthen mounds on which they built their temples. Even so their centres were huge; they weren't cities. A large amount of people came there to witness the ceremonies but the total number of people living there were no more than a few hundred priest and workers.

The temples were built from wood and therefore they disappeared. However, huge Olmecs' stone carvings survived including smaller ones made from jade, basalt and obsidian, a volcanic stones. They usual were pictured from jaguars, eagles and sharks crossed with human elements and looking fearsome. The Olmec culture spread from 1200BC over Central America and ended up by 800BC on the Pacific coast. For unknown reason it collapsed four centuries later. Olmecs, monumental building, carvings and gods are found times and times again which proves they were a powerful and continuous culture. Unfortunately, no writing has ever been found so far. Soon after the collapse of their civilisation picture writing had been developed,                               

CIVILISATION UNKNOWN

A few centuries later, around 150AD, the first true city in Central American had been built. The ruins of Teotihuacan are 30 miles from Mexico City. It was in the north of the Omec territory. The people who built it have never been identified. The complex is more than impressive. There are pyramids, palaces, houses and workshops all laid out in a regular 'grid' plan. A plan of parallel sets of streets crossing at right angles. The largest monument is the Pyramid of the Sun and still 60m high.

The city was certainly a great trading centre and maybe a holy city. Yet it remains a great mystery because no written records were found. It was finally destroyed in 700AD. The Aztec emporer made pilgrimage to the monument, centuries later.

CHICHENITZA  --  EL CASTILO

MAYAS

We know a lot more about the Maya civilization because they used picture writing with fixed dated and commemorate episodes in their history. The Maya culture lived in Yucatan (Mexico) and what are now Guatemala, Belize and Honduras. All these areas are tropical and must have been a hard job to clear it and keep it at bay. After their decline, the jungle overgrew the cities and was only discovered in modern times.

Many of their building complexes were more ceremonial centres than cities. However, their cities and sizes were incredible. Stone was used for their pyramids, temples, tombs and courtyards.

The Mayan capital, Chichen Itza, and other sites prove that it must have been a well organized society and dominated by religion. Mayan's greatest achievement was their mathematical and astronomical knowledge which was used to make a calendar spanning over thousands of years.

MAYAS CRAFTSMANSHIP

However, Mayan craftsmen produced supernatural beings in their pictures and sculptures. It was the general belief in Central America and in that the Mayans did not differ. Their craftsmanship reached a high during AD300-800.

Later on, after the invasion of the Toltecs from Mexico, The Mayas adopted the sacrifices of prisoners. The decline started and the Mayan culture survived till the Spanish invader destroyed it, in the 16th century.

MAYAS KULULCATAN

JAGUAR THRONE

AZTECS   JADE MASK 
GOD XIPE TOTEC

AZTEC PYRAMID ATST.  CECILIA  ACATITLAN   --   MEXICO

AZTECSthe follow time there were wars and migrations for a long time. In the valley of Mexico the Toltecs were overrun by the Aztecs. Gradually the Aztecs were conquering every tribe in Central American and kept them oppressed with their powerful military machine; from 1300 onwards till the Spanish arrived.

The Aztecs greatest achievement was the building of their capital Tenochtitlan on a group of islands in Lake Texcoco. They linked IT with a broadly built causeway. The city was great pyramids and temples. It supported a large population and was a thriving trade centre. It had canals and was busy with canoes.

The Aztecs are also known for the horrific bloody sacrifices. It could amount to thousands of victims sacrificed in one single occasion. Victims were prisoners of war and to keep up the supply for these sacrifices the Aztecs had to go to war and conquer, all the time. It created hatred amongst people who were forced into the acknowledgement of their supremacy.I

AZTECS  --   FEATHERHEADRESS  --  MAYBE THE CROWN OF THE MOCYEZUMA

ANDEAN PEOPLE

At the same time as the Aztecs developed their empire in Central America, the Incas developed theirs in South America. It reached from Ecuador to Central Chile. The Aztecs and Incas came from a long development from the Andean People. The Andean Peoples farmed their land in cutting giant steps into mountains, reinforced them with stones and had an intricate drainage system. They produced colourful textiles, pottery, silver and gold ware.

Other cultures were the great Tiahuannaco Empire during AD500-1000 who lived at a high altitude.

Some coastal people like the Moche and Chimu flourished in the region over the centuries.

INCAS PARTIALLY 
RESTORED HOUSES

INCAS

From all these various cultures, tribes and civilization the Incas developed. They organized their state or empire with great efficiency. The emperor, Sapa Inca, enforced all his rules. They built thousands of miles of good roads and reached even the furthest region. Messages were send by relays runners who were stationed at intervals en route. To send his messages they developed a system of knots on colourful strings which was called a quipu.

INCAS QUIPU

Their people were properly organized. They were not allowed to move from their home, paid taxes, performed military and labour service. In return for that they felt save under state power and had a good distribution of food.

MACHU PICCHU

Incas were great builders. The city of their capital Cusco and the mountain city Machu Picchu are the proof of it.  The stones are so exactly cut and assembled without mortar; you can’t put a knife in between. 

INCA'S STONEWORK

Christopher Columbus arrival in 1492 and had a disastrous effect on the Aztecs, Incas and other American Indian.

·TBottom of Form

ICE SKATING

Central Park New York 1892

                                                                                                                                           

SKATER WILLIAM GRANTPAINTED BY GILBERT STUART
IN 1782

Ice skating has an incredible long history.

If you have never stood on skates on a smooth surface like ice, you will never know what the first attempt feels like.

Wanting to skate like all these people on ice, gliding effortless across. Yet you stand there clinging to the barrier or friend and wobble from side to side. Oh the dream and yet it feels impossible to let go and glide across.

HISTORY

The country which invented skating was Scandinavia. It is thought that about 2000 ago the Scandinavians, having to cross frozen rivers and lakes, strapped animal’s bones to their feet. From that humble beginning it slowly but surely developed ice skating into a high-tech sport we know today.

There are two kinds of competitive ice skating. One is figure skating which involves jumps, spins and dance steps. The other one is Speed Skating which involves a race on ice. Both ice skating sports are controlled by the International Skating Union (ISU).

FIGURE SKATING

The contestant either skates single or in pairs and are based on free skating which involves jumps, spins, and steps. The free skating spins consists of sit spins, camel spins and upright spins. The jumps consist of the Axel-Paulsen, Lutz and Salchow which were named after skater who developed them. Jumps consists of rotation in the air and if the skater does it twice or three times it becomes a double or triple Axel.

The Single skater starts with the original free programme which is compulsory jumps, spins and with connecting steps. Skaters lose marks if they change the set even if it is harder. The second stage has no set and the skaters can show and choose their programme. Free skating standards is always improved. The competitive skater has to keep up with the latest standard.

The Pair skating is the more spectacular side of the sport. The male skater makes long, whirling jumps with his partner. He also lifts her high over his head which demands great strength and bravery. The contestants have to start with the original programme which has several compulsory movements. After that they are allowed throws in the following long and free programme.

For the single as well as pairs competitions the original programme has to be no longer than two minutes and 40 seconds. The long free programme must not be more than four and half minutes for men and four minutes for women.

ICE DANCING

It is performed by couples who have to dance to the rhythm of their choice. They don't need the strength as in Figure Skating because overhead lifts are not allowed. They get judged for dancing in style and timing.

The ice dance contest has three sections and lay down by ISU. In the compulsory dance the couple has to skate two sets from a standard list usually from waltz, tango and quickstep. For the original dance the ISU sets the Rheta but the couple choose the music and their own steps. For the free dance the couple choose their music and steps to dance a dramatic four minutes.

MARKS OUT OF SIX

Two referees, a timekeeper and a panel of judges make sure that the figure skating event is held according to their rules. The number of judges is always an odd number. They hold up cards which show marks out of six. The black number shows the overall marking and the red shows the tenth of marks. Big events have an electronic scoreboard.

The judge gives two marks for every programme One is for technical - how difficult the movement were and their performance. The other is for artistic impression - style and drama. Each judge adds the points up and place the skaters accordingly.